Main points

* There are two main positions for adjectives: in front of a noun, or as the complement of a link verb.

* Most adjectives can be used in either of these positions, but some adjectives can only be used in one.

1 Most adjectives can be used in a noun group, after determiners and numbers if there are any, in front of the noun.
He had a beautiful smile.
She bought a loaf of white bread.
There was no clear evidence.

2 Most adjectives can also be used after a link verb such as `be’, `become’, or `feel’.
I’m cold.
I felt angry.
Nobody seemed amused.

3 Some adjectives are normally used only after a link verb.

afraid, alive, alone, asleep, aware, content, due, glad, ill, ready, sorry, sure, unable, well

For example, you can say `She was glad’, but you do not talk about `a glad woman’.
I wanted to be alone.
We were getting ready for bed.
I’m not quite sure.
He didn’t know whether to feel glad or sorry.

4 Some adjectives are normally used only in front of a noun.

easternatomicindooroccasional
northerncountlessintroductoryoutdoor
southerndigitalmaximum
westernexistingneighbouring

For example, you talk about `an atomic bomb’, but you do not say `The bomb was atomic’.
He sent countless letters to the newspapers.
This book includes a good introductory chapter on forests.

5 When you use an adjective to emphasize a strong feeling or opinion, it always comes in front of a noun.

absolute, complete, entire, outright, perfect, positive, pure, real, total, true, utter

Some of it was absolute rubbish.
He made me feel like a complete idiot.

6 Some adjectives that describe size or age can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun that indicates the unit of measurement.

deeplongtallwide
higholdthick

He was about six feet tall.
The water was several metres deep.
The baby is nine months old.

Note that you do not say `two pounds heavy’, you say `two pounds in weight’.

7 A few adjectives are used alone after a noun.

designate, elect, galore, incarnate

She was now the president elect.
There are empty houses galore.

8 A few adjectives have a different meaning depending on whether they come in front of or after a noun.

concerned, involved, present, proper, responsible

For example, `the concerned mother’ means a mother who is worried, but `the mother concerned’ means the mother who has been mentioned.
It’s one of those incredibly involved stories.
The people involved are all doctors.
I’m worried about the present situation.
Of the 18 people present, I knew only one.
Her parents were trying to act in a responsible manner.
We do not know the person responsible for his death.

Main points

* Adjectives used after link verbs are often followed by `to’-infinitive clauses or `that’-clauses.

* Some adjectives are always followed by `to’-infinitive clauses.

* You often use `to’-infinitive clauses or `that’-clauses after adjectives to express feelings or opinions.

* You often use `to’-infinitive clauses after adjectives when the subject is impersonal `it’.

1 After link verbs, you often use adjectives that describe how someone feels about an action or situation. With some adjectives, you can add a `to’-infinitive clause or a `that’-clause to say what the action or situation is.

afraid, anxious, ashamed, disappointed, frightened, glad, happy, pleased, proud, sad, surprised, unhappy

If the subject is the same in both clauses, you usually use a `to’-infinitive clause. If the subject is different, you must use a `that’-clause.
I was happy to see them again.
He was happy that they were coming to the party.

You often use a `to’-infinitive clause when talking about future time in relation to the main clause.
I am afraid to go home.
He was anxious to leave before it got dark.

You often use a `that’-clause when talking about present or past time in relation to the main clause.
He was anxious that the passport was missing.
They were afraid that I might have talked to the police.

2 You often use `sorry’ with a `that’-clause. Note that `that’ is often omitted.
I’m very sorry that I can’t join you.
I’m sorry I’m so late.

3 Some adjectives are not usually used alone, but have a `to’-infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation the adjective relates to.

able, apt, bound, due, inclined, liable, likely, prepared, ready, unlikely, unwilling, willing

They were unable to help her.
They were not likely to forget it.
I am willing to try.
I’m prepared to say I was wrong.

4 When you want to express an opinion about someone or something, you often use an adjective followed by a `to’-infinitive clause.

difficult, easy, impossible, possible, right, wrong

She had been easy to deceive.
The windows will be almost impossible to open.
Am Iwrong to stay here?

Note that in the first two examples, the subject of the main clause is the object of the `to’-infinitive clause. In the third example, the subject is the same in both clauses.

5 With some adjectives, you use a `that’-clause to express an opinion about someone or something.

awful, bad, essential, extraordinary, funny, good, important, interesting, obvious, sad, true

I was sad that people had reacted in this way.
It is extraordinary that we should ever have met!

6 You can also use adjectives with `to’-infinitive clauses after `it’ as the impersonal subject. You use the preposition `of’ or `for’ to indicate the person or thing that the adjective relates to.
It was easy to find the path.
It was good of John to help me.
It was difficult for her to find a job.
See Unit 17 for `it’ as impersonal subject.

See Unit 47 for more information about adjectives followed by `of’ or `for’.

Main points

* You put opinion adjectives in front of descriptive adjectives.

* You put general opinion adjectives in front of specific opinion adjectives.

* You can sometimes vary the order of adjectives.

* If you use two or more descriptive adjectives, you put them in a particular order.

* If you use a noun in front of another noun, you put any adjectives in front of the first noun.

1 You often want to add more information to a noun than you can with one adjective. In theory, you can use the adjectives in any order, depending on the quality you want to emphasize. In practice, however, there is a normal order.

When you use two or more adjectives in front of a noun, you usually put an adjective that expresses your opinion in front of an adjective that just describes something.
You live in a nice big house.
He is a naughty little boy.
She was wearing a beautiful pink suit.

2 When you use more than one adjective to express your opinion, an adjective with a more general meaning such as `good’, `bad’, `nice’, or `lovely’ usually comes before an adjective with a more specific meaning such as `comfortable’, `clean’, or `dirty’.
I sat in a lovely comfortable armchair in the corner.
He put on a nice clean shirt.

3 You can use adjectives to describe various qualities of people or things. For example, you might want to indicate their size, their shape, or the country they come from.

Descriptive adjectives belong to six main types, but you are unlikely ever to use all six types in the same noun group. If you did, you would normally put them in the following order:

sizeageshapecolournationalitymaterial

This means that if you want to use an `age’ adjective and a `nationality’ adjective, you put the `age’ adjective first.
We met some young Chinese girls.

Similarly, a `shape’ adjective normally comes before a `colour’ adjective.
He had round black eyes.

Other combinations of adjectives follow the same order. Note that `material’ means any substance, not only cloth.
There was a large round wooden table in the room.
The man was carrying a small black plastic bag.

4 You usually put comparative and superlative adjectives in front of other adjectives.
Some of the better English actors have gone to live in Hollywood.
These are the highest monthly figures on record.

5 When you use a noun in front of another noun, you never put adjectives between them. You put any adjectives in front of the first noun.
He works in the French film industry.
He receives a large weekly cash payment.

6 When you use two adjectives as the complement of a link verb, you use a conjunction such as `and’ to link them. With three or more adjectives, you link the last two with a conjunction, and put commas after the others.
The day was hot and dusty.
The room was large but square.
The house was old, damp and smelly.
We felt hot, tired and thirsty.

Main points

* Many adjectives ending in `-ing’ describe the effect that something has on someone’s feelings.

* Some adjectives ending in `-ing’ describe a process or state that continues over a period of time.

* Many adjectives ending in `-ed’ describe people’s feelings.

1 You use many `-ing’ adjectives to describe the effect that something has on your feelings, or on the feelings of people in general. For example, if you talk about `a surprising number’, you mean that the number surprises you.

alarmingcharmingembarrassingsurprising
amazingcharmingexcitingterrifying
annoyingcharmingfrighteningtiring
astonishingdepressinginterestingworrying
boringdisappointingshockingwelcoming

He lives in a charming house just outside the town.
She always has a warm welcoming smile.

Most `-ing’ adjectives have a related transitive verb.
See Unit 51 for information on transitive verbs.

2 You use some `-ing’ adjectives to describe something that continues over a period of time.

ageingdecreasingexistingliving
boomingdyingincreasingremaining

Britain is an ageing society.
Increasing prices are making food very expensive.

These adjectives have related intransitive verbs.
See Unit 51 for information on intransitive verbs.

3 Many `-ed’ adjectives describe people’s feelings. They have the same form as the past participle of a transitive verb and have a passive meaning. For example, `a frightened person’ is a person who has been frightened by something.

alarmeddelightedfrightenedsurprised
amuseddepressedinterestedtired
astonisheddisappointedsatisfiedworried
boredexcitedshocked

She looks alarmed about something.
A bored student complained to his teacher.
She had big blue frightened eyes.

Note that the past participles of irregular verbs do not end in `-ed’, but can be used as adjectives. See pages 216-217 for a list of irregular past participles.
The bird had a broken wing.
His coat was dirty and torn.

4 Like other adjectives, `-ing’ and `-ed’ adjectives can be:

* used in front of a noun
They still show amazing loyalty to their parents.
This is the most terrifying tale ever written.
I was thanked by the satisfied customer.
The worried authorities cancelled the match.

* used after link verbs
It’s amazing what they can do.
The present situation is terrifying.
He felt satisfied with all the work he had done.
My husband was worried.

* modified by adverbials such as `quite’, `really’, and `very’
The film was quite boring.
There is nothing very surprising in this.
She was quite astonished at his behaviour.
He was a very disappointed young man.

* used in the comparative and superlative
His argument was more convincing than mine.
He became even more depressed after she died.
This is one of the most boring books I’ve ever read.
She was the most interested in going to the cinema.

5 A small number of `-ed’ adjectives are normally only used after link verbs such as `be’, `become’, or `feel’. They are related to transitive verbs, and are often followed by a prepositional phrase, a `to’-infinitive clause, or a `that’-clause.

convincedinterestedpreparedtired
delightedinvolvedscaredtouched
finishedpleasedthrilled

The Brazilians are pleased with the results.
He was always prepared to account for his actions.
She was scared that they would find her.

Main points

* You add `-er’ for the comparative and `-est’ for the superlative of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs.

* You use `-er’ and `-est’ with some two-syllable adjectives.

* You use `more’ for the comparative and `most’ for the superlative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in `-ly’.

* Some common adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms.

1 You add `-er’ for the comparative form and `-est’ for the superlative form of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs. If they end in `-e’, you add `-r’ and `-st’.

cheap* cheaper* cheapest
safe* safer* safest

closecoldfasthardlargelightnice
poorquickroughsmallweakwideyoung

They worked harder.
I’ve found a nicer hotel.

If they end in a single vowel and consonant (except `-w’), double the consonant.

big* bigger* biggest

fathotsadthinwet

The day grew hotter.
Henry was the biggest of them.

2 With two-syllable adjectives and adverbs ending in a consonant and `-y’, you change the `-y’ to `-i’ and add `-er’ and `-est’.

happy* happier* happiest

angrybusydirtyeasyfriendly
funnyheavyluckysillytiny

It couldn’t be easier.
That is the funniest bit of the film.

3 You use `more’ for the comparative and `most’ for the superlative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending in `-ly’.

careful* more careful* most careful
beautiful* more beautiful* most beautiful
seriously* more seriously* most seriously

Be more careful next time.
They are the most beautiful gardens in the world.
It affected Clive most seriously.

Note that for `early’ as an adjective or adverb, you use `earlier’ and `earliest’, not `more’ and `most’.

4 With some common two-syllable adjectives and adverbs you can either add `-er’ and `-est’, or use `more’ and `most’.

commongentlelikelypleasantsimple
cruelhandsomenarrowpolitestupid

Note that `clever’ and `quiet’ only add `-er’ and `-est’.
It was quieter outside.
He was the cleverest man I ever knew.

5 You normally use `the’ with superlative adjectives in front of a noun, but you can omit `the’ after a link verb.
It was the happiest day of my life.
I was happiest when I was on my own.

WARNING: When `most’ is used without `the’ in front of adjectives and adverbs, it often means almost the same as `very’.

This book was most interesting.
I object most strongly.

6 A few common adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

good/well* better* best
bad/badly* worse* worst
far* farther/further* farthest/furthest
old* older/elder* oldest/eldest

She would ask him when she knew him better.
She sat near the furthest window.

Note that you use `elder’ or `eldest’ to say which brother, sister, or child in a family you mean.
Our eldest daughter couldn’t come.

Main points

* Comparative adjectives are used to compare people or things.

* Superlative adjectives are used to say that one person or thing has more of a quality than others in a group or others of that kind.

* Comparative adverbs are used in the same way as adjectives.

1 You use comparative adjectives to compare one person or thing with another, or with the same person or thing at another time. After a comparative adjective, you often use `than’.
She was much older than me.
I am happier than I have ever been.

2 You use a superlative to say that one person or thing has more of a quality than others in a group or others of that kind.
Tokyo is Japan’s largest city.
He was the tallest person there.
Buses are often the cheapest way of travelling.

3 You can use comparative and superlative adjectives in front of a noun.
I was a better writer than he was.
He had more important things to do.
It was the quickest route from Rome to Naples.

You can also use comparative and superlative adjectives after link verbs.
My brother is younger than me.
He feels more content now.
The sergeant was the tallest.
This book was the most interesting.

4 You can use adverbs of degree in front of comparative adjectives.

a bit, far, a great/good deal, a little, a lot, much, rather, slightly

This car’s a bit more expensive.
Now I feel a great deal more confident.
It’s a rather more complicated story than that.

You can also use adverbs of degree such as `by far’, `easily’, `much’, or `quite’ in front of `the’ and superlative adjectives.
It was by far the worst hospital I had ever seen.
She was easily the most intelligent person in the class.

Note that you can put `very’ between `the’ and a superlative adjective ending in `-est’.
It was of the very highest quality.

5 When you want to say that one situation depends on another, you can use `the’ and a comparative followed by `the’ and another comparative.
The smaller it is, the cheaper it is to post.
The larger the organisation is, the greater the problem of administration becomes.

When you want to say that something increases or decreases, you can use two comparatives linked by `and’.
It’s getting harder and harder to find a job.
Cars are becoming more and more expensive.

6 After a superlative adjective, you can use a prepositional phrase to specify the group you are talking about.
Henry was the biggest of them.
These cakes are probably the best in the world.
He was the most dangerous man in the country.

7 You use the same structures in comparisons using adverbs as those given for adjectives:

* `than’ after comparative adverbs
Prices have been rising faster than incomes.

* `the’ and a comparative adverb followed by `the’ and another comparative adverb
The quicker we finish, the sooner we will go home.

* two comparative adverbs linked by `and’
He sounded worse and worse.
He drove faster and faster till we told him to stop.