Main points

* Intransitive verbs do not have an object.

* Transitive verbs have an object.

* Some verbs can be used with or without an object, depending on the situation or their meaning.

1 Many verbs do not normally have an object. They are called `intransitive’ verbs. They often refer to:

existence:appear die disappear happen live remain
the human body:ache bleed blush faint shiver smile
human noises:cough cry laugh scream snore speak yawn
light, smell, vibration:glow shine sparkle stink throb vibrate
position, movement:arrive come depart fall flow go kneel run sit sleep stand swim wait walk work

An awful thing has happened.
The girl screamed.
I waited.

Note that intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive.

2 Many verbs normally have an object. These verbs are called `transitive’ verbs. They are often connected with:

physical objects:build buy carry catch cover cut destroy hit own remove sell use waste wear
senses:feel hear see smell taste touch
feelings:admire enjoy fear frighten hate like love need prefer surprise trust want
facts, ideas:accept believe correct discuss expect express forget include know mean remember report
people:address blame comfort contact convince defy kill persuade please tease thank warn

He hit the ball really hard.
Did you see the rainbow?
They both enjoyed the film.
She reported the accident to the police.
Don’t blame me.

Note that transitive verbs can be used in the passive.
They were blamed for everything.

WARNING: `Have’ is a transitive verb, but cannot be used in the passive. You can say `I have a car’ but not `A car is had by me’.

3 Often, the people you are talking to know what the object is because of the situation, or because it has already been mentioned. In this case you can omit the object, even though the verb is transitive.

accept, answer, change, choose, clean, cook, draw, drive, eat, explain, forget, help, iron, know, learn, leave, paint, park, phone, read, remember, ride, sing, steal, study, type, understand, wash, watch, write

I don’t own a car. I can’t drive.
You don’t smoke, do you?
I asked a question and George answered.
Both dresses are beautiful. It’s difficult to choose.

4 Many verbs have more than one meaning, and are transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another meaning. For example, the verb `run’ is intransitive when you use it to mean `move quickly’ but transitive when you use it to mean `manage or operate’.

call, fit, lose, manage, miss, move, play, run, show, spread

The hare runs at enormous speed.
She runs a hotel.
She moved gracefully.
The whole incident had moved her profoundly.

5 A few verbs are normally intransitive, but can be used with an object that is closely related to the verb.

dance (a dance), die (a death), dream (a dream), , laugh (a laugh), live (a life), sigh (a sigh), smile (a smile)

Steve smiled his thin, cruel smile.
He appears to have lived the life of any other rich gentleman.
I once dreamed a very nice dream.

Note that you normally add more information about the object, for example by using adjectives in front of the noun.

Main points

* Some verbs have two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.

* The indirect object can be used without a preposition, or after `to’ or `for’.

1 Some verbs have two objects after them, a direct object and an indirect object. For example, in the sentence `I gave John the book’, `the book’ is the direct object. `John’ is the indirect object. Verbs that have two objects are sometimes called `ditransitive’ verbs or `double-transitive’ verbs.
His uncle had given him books on India.
She sends you her love.
I passed him the cup.

2 When the indirect object is a pronoun, or another short noun group such as a noun with `the’, you put the indirect object in front of the direct object.
Dad gave me a car.
You promised the lad a job.
He had lent my cousin the money.
She bought Dave and me an ice cream.

3 You can also use the prepositions `to’ and `for’ to introduce the indirect object. If you do this, you put the preposition and indirect object after the direct object.
He handed his room key to the receptionist.
Bill saved a piece of cake for the children.

When the indirect object consists of several words, you normally use a preposition to introduce it.
She taught physics and chemistry to pupils at the local school.
I made that lamp for a seventy-year-old woman.

You often use a preposition when you want to emphasize the indirect object.
Did you really buy that for me?

4 With some verbs you can only use `for’, not `to’, to introduce the indirect object.

bookcutmakeprepare
buyfindpaintsave
cookkeeppourwin

They booked a place for me.
He had found some old clothes for the beggar.
They bought a present for the teacher.
She painted a picture for her father.

5 With some verbs you normally use `to’ to introduce the indirect object.

givepayreadshow
lendpostsellteach
offerpromisesendtell
pass

I had lent my bicycle to a friend.
Ralph passed a message to Jack.
They say they posted the letter to me last week.
He sold it to me.

Note that you can use `for’ with these verbs, but it has a different meaning. `For’ indicates that one person does something on behalf of another person, so that the other person does not have to do it.
His mother paid the bill for him.
If you’re going out, can you post this for me, please?

Main points

* Transitive verbs are used with a reflexive pronoun to indicate that the object is the same as the subject, for example: `I hurt myself’.

* Some verbs which do not normally have a person as the object can have reflexive pronouns as the object.

1 You use a reflexive pronoun after a transitive verb to indicate that the object is the same as the subject.
He blamed himself for his friend’s death.
I taught myself French.
See Unit 20 for more information on reflexive pronouns.

2 In theory, most transitive verbs can be used with a reflexive pronoun. However, you often use reflexive pronouns with the following verbs.

amusedryintroducerepeatteach
blamehelpkillrestrict
cuthurtpreparesatisfy

Sam amused himself by throwing branches into the fire.
`Can I borrow a pencil?’ – `Yes, help yourself.’
Prepare yourself for a shock.
He introduced himself to me.

3 Verbs like `dress’, `shave’, and `wash’, which describe actions that people do to themselves, do not usually take reflexive pronouns in English, although they do in some other languages. With these verbs, reflexive pronouns are only used for emphasis.
I usually shave before breakfast.
He prefers to shave himself, even with that broken arm.
She washed very quickly and rushed downstairs.
Children were encouraged to wash themselves.

4 `Behave’ does not normally take an object at all, but can take a reflexive pronoun as object.
If they don’t behave, send them to bed.
He is old enough to behave himself.

5 Some verbs do not normally have a person as object, because they describe actions that you do not do to other people. However, these verbs can have reflexive pronouns as object, because you can do these actions to yourself.

apply, compose, distance, enjoy, excel, exert, express, strain

I really enjoyed the party.
Just go out there and enjoy yourself.
She expressed surprise at the news.
Professor Dale expressed himself very forcibly.

6 When `busy’ and `content’ are used as verbs, they always take a reflexive pronoun as their direct object. They are therefore true `reflexive verbs’.
He had busied himself in the laboratory.
I had to content myself with watching the little moving lights.

Main points

* Some verbs describe two people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other, for example: `We met’, `I met you’, `We met each other’.

* You use `each other’ or `one another’ for emphasis.

* With some verbs, you use `each other’ or `one another’ after `with’.

1 Some verbs refer to actions that involve two people or two groups of people doing the same thing to each other. These verbs are sometimes called `reciprocal’ verbs.
We met in Delhi.
Jane and Sarah told me that they met you.
They met each other for the first time last week.

2 The two people or groups of people involved in the action are often mentioned as the plural subject of the verb, and the verb does not have an object. For example, `John and Mary argued’ means that John argued with Mary and Mary argued with John.

argue, clash, coincide, combine, compete, fight, kiss, marry, match, meet

The pair of you have argued about that for years.
We competed furiously.
Their children are always fighting.
They kissed.

3 When you want to emphasize that both people or groups of people are equally involved, you can use the pronouns `each other’ or `one another’ as the object of the verb. Verbs that refer to actions in which there is physical contact between people are often used with `each other’ or `one another’.

cuddle, embrace, fight, hug, kiss, touch

We embraced each other.
They fought one another desperately for it.
They kissed each other in greeting.
It was the first time they had touched one another.

4 Some verbs do not take an object, so you use a preposition before `each other’ or `one another’.
They parted from each other after only two weeks.
We talk to one another as often as possible.

5 With some verbs you have a choice of preposition before `each other’ or `one another’. For example, you can `fight with’ one another or `fight against’ one another.

with/against:compete fight
with/from:part
with/to:correspond relate talk

Many countries are competing with each other.
Did you compete against each other in yesterday’s race?
Stephen and I parted with one another on good terms.
They parted from one another quite suddenly.

6 With some verbs, you can only use `with’ before `each other’ or `one another’. Note that most of these verbs refer to people talking or working together.

agree, argue, clash, collide, communicate, co-operate, disagree, quarrel

We do agree with each other sometimes.
Have they communicated with each other since then?
The two lorries collided with one another on the motorway.

7 If you want to focus on one of the people involved, you make them the subject of the verb and make the other person the object.
She married a young engineer.
You could meet me at the restaurant.

If the verb cannot take an object, you mention the other person after a preposition.
Youths clashed with police in Belfast.
She was always quarrelling with him.

Main points

* Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive. The object of the transitive use is the subject of the intransitive use, for example: `I opened the door’, `The door opened’.

* A few verbs are only ergative with particular nouns.

* A few of these verbs need an adverbial when they are used without an object.

1 Some verbs can be used as transitive verbs to focus on the person who performs an action, and as intransitive verbs to focus on the thing affected by the action.
When I opened the door, there was Laverne.
Suddenly the door opened.

Note that the object of the transitive verb, in this case `the door’, is the subject of the intransitive verb. Verbs like these are called `ergative’ verbs.

2 Ergative verbs often refer to:

* changes

begin, break, change, crack, dry, end, finish, grow, improve, increase, slow, start, stop, tear

I broke the glass.
The glass broke all over the floor.
The driver stopped the car.
A big car stopped.

* cooking

bake, boil, cook, defrost, fry, melt, roast, simmer

I’ve boiled an egg.
The porridge is boiling.
I’m cooking spaghetti.
The rice is cooking.

* position or movement

balance, close, drop, move, open, rest, rock, shake, stand, turn

She rested her head on his shoulder.
Her head rested on the table.
An explosion shook the hotel.
The whole room shook.

* vehicles

backdrivereversesail
crashflyrun

He had crashed the car twice.
Her car crashed into a tree.
She sailed her yacht round the world.
The ship sailed on Monday.

3 Some verbs can be used in these two ways only with a small set of nouns. For example, you can say `He fired a gun’ or `The gun fired’. You can do the same with other words referring to types of gun, `cannon’, `pistol’, or `rifle’. However, although you can say `He fired a bullet’, you cannot say `The bullet fired’.

catch:belt, cloth, clothing, dress, shirt, trousers
fire:cannon, gun, pistol, rifle
play:guitar, music, piano, violin
ring:alarm, bell
show:anger, disappointment, emotions, fear, joy
sound:alarm, bell, horn

I caught my dress on the fence.
My tights caught on a nail.
A car was sounding its horn.
A horn sounded in the night.

4 A few verbs can be used in both ways, but need an adverbial when they are used without an object.

cleanhandlepolishstain
freezemarksellwash

He sells books.
This book is selling well.
She had handled a machine gun.
This car handles very nicely.

Main points

* Examples are: `have a bath’; `give a shout’; `make promises’; `take care’.

* Common verbs are often used with nouns to describe actions.

* You use `have’ with nouns referring to eating, drinking, talking, and washing.

* You use `give’ with nouns referring to noises, hitting, and talking.

* You use `make’ with nouns referring to talking, plans, and travelling.

1 When you want to talk about actions, you often use common verbs with nouns as their object. The nouns describe the action. For example, if you say `I had a shower’, the noun tells you what the action was. The common verbs have very little meaning.
I had a nice rest.
She made a remark about the weather.

The nouns often have related verbs that do not take an object.
Helen went upstairs to rest.
I remarked that it would be better if I came.

2 Different verbs are used with different nouns.

You use `have’ with nouns referring to:

meals:breakfast dinner drink lunch meal taste tea
talking:chat conversation discussion talk
washing:bath shower wash
relaxation:break holiday rest
disagreement:argument fight quarrel trouble

We usually have lunch at one o’clock.
He was having his first holiday for five years.

3 You use `give’ with nouns referring to:

human noises:cry gasp giggle groan laugh scream shout sigh whistle yell
facial expressions:grin smile
hitting:kick punch push slap
talking:advice answer example information interview lecture news report speech talk warning

Mr Sutton gave a shout of triumph.
She gave a long lecture about Roosevelt.

4 You use `make’ with nouns referring to:

talking and sounds:comment enquiry noise point promise remark sound speech suggestion
plans:arrangement choice decision plan
travelling:journey tour trip visit

He made the shortest speech I’ve ever heard.
In 1978 he made his first visit to Australia.

5 You use `take’ with these nouns:

careinterestrisk
chanceoffencetime
chargephotographtrouble
decisionresponsibilityturns

He was taking no chances.
She was prepared to take great risks.

6 You use `go’ and `come’ with `-ing’ nouns referring to sports and outdoor activities.
She goes climbing in her holidays.
Every morning, he goes jogging with Tommy.

Note that you can also use `go for’ and `come for’ with `a jog’, `a run’, `a swim’, `a walk’.
They went for a run before breakfast.

7 You use `do’ with `-ing’ nouns referring to jobs connected with the home, and nouns referring generally to work.
He wants to do the cooking.
He does all the shopping and I do the washing.
The man who did the job had ten years’ training.
He has to get up early and do a hard day’s work.

`Do’ is often used instead of more specific verbs. For example, you can say `Have you done your teeth?’ instead of `Have you brushed your teeth?’
Do I need to do my hair?

Main points

* The auxiliaries `be’, `have’, and `do’ are used in forming tenses, negatives, and questions.

* The auxiliary `be’ is used in forming the continuous tenses and the passive.

* The auxiliary `have’ is used in forming the perfect tenses.

* The auxiliary `do’ is used in making negative and question forms from sentences that have a verb in a simple tense.

1 The auxiliary verbs are `be’, `have’, and `do’. They are used with a main verb to form tenses, negatives, and questions.
He is planning to get married soon.
I haven’t seen Peter since last night.
Which doctor do you want to see?

2 `Be’ as an auxiliary is used:

* with the `-ing’ form of the main verb to form continuous tenses
He is living in Germany.
They were going to phone you.

* with the past participle of the main verb to form the passive
These cars are made in Japan.
The walls of her flat were covered with posters.

3 You use `have’ as an auxiliary with the past participle to form the perfect tenses.
I have changed my mind.
I wish you had met Guy.

The present perfect continuous, the past perfect continuous, and the perfect tenses in the passive, are formed using both `have’ and `be’.
He has been working very hard recently.
She did not know how long she had been lying there.
The guest-room window has been mended.
They had been taught by a young teacher.

4 `Be’ and `have’ are also used as auxiliaries in negative sentences and questions in continuous and perfect tenses, and in the passive.
He isn’t going.
Hasn’t she seen it yet?
Was it written in English?

You use `do’ as an auxiliary to make negative and question forms from sentences that have a verb in the present simple or past simple.
He doesn’t think he can come to the party.
Do you like her new haircut?
She didn’t buy the house.
Didn’t he get the job?

Note that you can use `do’ as a main verb with the auxiliary `do’.
He didn’t do his homework.
Do they do the work themselves?

You can also use the auxiliary `do’ with `have’ as a main verb.
He doesn’t have any money.
Does anyone have a question?

You only use `do’ in affirmative sentences for emphasis or contrast.
I do feel sorry for Roger.

WARNING: You never use the auxiliary `do’ with `be’ except in the imperative.

Don’t be stupid!
Do be a good boy and sit still.

5 Some grammars include modals among the auxiliary verbs. When there is a modal in the verb group, it is always the first word in the verb group, and comes before the auxiliaries `be’ and `have’.
She might be going to Switzerland for Christmas.
I would have liked to have seen her.

Note that you never use the auxiliary `do’ with a modal.
See Units 79-91 for more information on modals.

Main points

* There are four present tenses – present simple (`I walk’), present continuous (`I am walking’), present perfect (`I have walked’), and present perfect continuous (`I have been walking’).

* All the present tenses are used to refer to a time which includes the present.

* Present tenses can also be used for predictions made in the present about future events.

1 There are four tenses which begin with a verb in the present tense. They are the present simple, the present continuous, the present perfect, and the present perfect continuous. These are the present tenses.

2 The present simple and the present continuous are used with reference to present time. If you are talking about the general present, or about a regular or habitual action, you use the present simple.
George lives in Birmingham.
They often phone my mother in London.

If you are talking about something in the present situation, you use the present continuous.
He’s playing tennis at the University.
I’m cooking the dinner.

The present continuous is often used to refer to a temporary situation.
She’s living in a flat at present.

3 You use the present perfect or the present perfect continuous when you are concerned with the present effects of something which happened at a time in the past, or which started in the past but is still continuing.
Have you seen the film at the Odeon?
We’ve been waiting here since before two o’clock.

4 If you are talking about something which is scheduled or timetabled to happen in the future, you can use the present simple tense.
The next train leaves at two fifteen in the morning.
It’s Tuesday tomorrow.

5 If you are talking about something which has been arranged for the future, you can use the present continuous. When you use the present continuous like this, there is nearly always a time adverbial like `tomorrow’, `next week’, or `later’ in the clause.
We’re going on holiday with my parents this year.
The Browns are having a party next week.

6 It is only in the main clauses that the choice of tense can be related to a particular time. In subordinate clauses, for example in `if’- clauses, time clauses, and defining relative clauses, present tenses often refer to a future time in relation to the time in the main clause.
You can go at five if you have finished.
Let’s have a drink before we start.
We’ll save some food for anyone who arrives late.

7 The present simple tense normally has no auxiliary verb, but questions and negative sentences are formed with the auxiliary `do’.
Do you live round here?
Does your husband do most of the cooking?
They don’t often phone during the week.
She doesn’t like being late if she can help it.

Main points

* There are four past tenses – past simple (`I walked’), past continuous (`I was walking’), past perfect (`I had walked’), and past perfect continuous (`I had been walking’).

* All the past tenses are used to refer to past time.

* The past tenses are often used as polite forms.

* The past tenses have special meanings in conditional clauses and when referring to imaginary situations.

1 There are four tenses which begin with a verb in the past tense. They are the past simple, the past continuous, the past perfect, and the past perfect continuous. These are the past tenses. They are used to refer to past time, and also to refer to imaginary situations, and to express politeness.

2 The past simple and the past continuous are used with reference to past time. You use the past simple for events which happened in the past.
I woke up early and got out of bed.

If you are talking about the general past, or about regular or habitual actions in the past, you also use the past simple.
She lived just outside London.
We often saw his dog sitting outside his house.

If you are talking about something which continued to happen before and after a particular time in the past, you use the past continuous.
They were sitting in the kitchen, when they heard the explosion.
Jack arrived while the children were having their bath.

The past continuous is often used to refer to a temporary situation.
He was working at home at the time.
Bill was using my office until I came back from America.

3 You use the past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses when you are talking about the past and you are concerned with something which happened at an earlier time, or which had started at an earlier time but was still continuing.
I had heard it was a good film so we decided to go and see it.
It was getting late. I had been waiting there since two o’clock.

4 You sometimes use a past tense rather than a present tense when you want to be more polite. For example, in the following pairs of sentences, the second one is more polite.
Do you want to see me now?
Did you want to see me now?
I wonder if you can help me.
I was wondering if you could help me.

5 The past tenses have special meanings in conditional clauses and when referring to hypothetical and imaginary situations, for example after `I wish’ or `What if…?’. You use the past simple and past continuous for something that you think is unlikely to happen.
If they saw the mess, they would be very angry.
We would tell you if we were selling the house.

You use the past perfect and past perfect continuous when you are talking about something which could have happened in the past, but which did not actually happen.
If I had known that you were coming, I would have told Jim.
They wouldn’t have gone to bed if they had been expecting you to arrive.

Main points

* Continuous tenses describe actions which continue to happen before and after a particular time.

* Continuous tenses can also indicate duration and change.

1 You use a continuous tense to indicate that an action continues to happen before and after a particular time, without stopping. You use the present continuous for actions which continue to happen before and after the moment of speaking.
I’m looking at the photographs my brother sent me.
They’re having a meeting.

2 When you are talking about two actions in the present tense, you use the present continuous for an action that continues to happen before and after another action that interrupts it. You use the present simple for the other action.
The phone always rings when I’m having a bath.
Friends always talk to me when I’m trying to study.

3 When you are talking about the past, you use the past continuous for actions that continued to happen before and after another action, or before and after a particular time. This is often called the `interrupted past’. You use the past simple for the other action.
He was watching television when the doorbell rang.
It was 6 o’clock. The train was nearing London.

WARNING: If two things happened one after another, you use two verbs in the past simple tense.

As soon as he saw me, he waved.

4 You can use continuous forms with modals in all their usual meanings.
See Units 79 to 91 for more information on modals.

What could he be thinking of?
They might be telling lies.

5 You use continuous tenses to express duration, when you want to emphasize how long something has been happening or will happen for.
We had been living in Athens for five years.
They’ll be staying with us for a couple of weeks.
He has been building up the business all his life.
By 1992, he will have been working for ten years.

Note that you do not have to use continuous tenses for duration.
We had lived in Africa for five years.
He worked for us for ten years.

6 You use continuous tenses to describe a state or situation that is temporary.
I’m living in London at the moment.
He’ll be working nights next week.
She’s spending the summer in Europe.

7 You use continuous tenses to show that something is changing, developing, or progressing.
Her English was improving.
The children are growing up quickly.
The video industry has been developing rapidly.

8 As a general rule, verbs which refer to actions that require a deliberate effort can be used in continuous tenses, verbs which refer to actions that do not require a deliberate effort are not used in continuous tenses.
I think it’s going to rain. (`think’ = `believe’. Believing does not require deliberate effort)
Please be quiet. I’m thinking . (`think’ = `try to solve a problem’. Trying to solve a problem does require deliberate effort)

However, many verbs are not normally used in the continuous tenses. These include verbs that refer to thinking, liking and disliking, appearance, possession, and perception.
See Unit 62 for lists of these verbs.

Main points

* For the general present, general truths, and habitual actions, you use the present simple (`I walk’).

* For something which is happening now, or for temporary situations, you use the present continuous (`I am walking’).

1 If you are talking about the present in general, you normally use the present simple tense. You use the present simple for talking about the general present including the present moment.
My dad works in Saudi Arabia.
He lives in the French Alps near the Swiss border.

2 If you are talking about general truths, you use the present simple.
Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade.
Love makes the world go round.
The bus takes longer than the train.

3 If you are talking about regular or habitual actions, you use the present simple.
Do you eat meat?
I get up early and eat my breakfast in bed.
I pay the milkman on Fridays.

4 If you are talking about something which is regarded as temporary, you use the present continuous.
Do you know if she’s still playing tennis these days?
I’m working as a British Council officer.

5 If you are talking about something which is happening now, you normally use the present continuous tense.
We’re having a meeting. Come and join in.
Wait a moment. I’m listening to the news.

6 There are a number of verbs which are used in the present simple tense even when you are talking about the present moment. These verbs are not normally used in the present continuous or the other continuous tenses. These verbs usually refer to:

thinking:believe forget imagine know realize recognize suppose think understand want wish
liking and disliking:admire dislike hate like love prefer
appearance:appear look like resemble seem
possession:belong to contain have include own possess
perception:hear see smell taste
being:be consist of exist

I believe he was not to blame.
She hates going to parties.
Our neighbours have two cars.

Note that you normally use verbs of perception with the modal `can’, rather than using the present simple tense.
I can smell gas.

Some other common verbs are not normally used in the present continuous or the other continuous tenses.

concern, deserve, fit, interest, involve, matter, mean, satisfy, surprise

What do you mean?

WARNING: Some of the verbs listed above can be used in continuous tenses in other meanings. For example, `have’ referring to possession is not used in continuous tenses. You do not say `I am having a car’. But note the following examples.

We’re having a party tomorrow.
He’s having problems with his car.
She’s having a shower.

Main points

* You use the present perfect (`I have walked’) to relate the past to the present.

* You use the past perfect (`I had walked’) to talk about a situation that occurred before a particular time in the past.

1 You use the present perfect tense when you are concerned with the present effects of something which happened at an indefinite time in the past.
I’m afraid I’ve forgotten my book.
Have you heard from Jill recently?

Sometimes, the present effects are important because they are very recent.
Karen has just passed her exams.

You also use the present perfect when you are thinking of a time which started in the past and is still continuing.
Have you really lived here for ten years?
He has worked here since 1987.

You also use the present perfect in time clauses, when you are talking about something which will be done at some time in the future.
Tell me when you have finished.
I’ll write to you as soon as I have heard from Jenny.

2 When you want to emphasize the fact that a recent event continued to happen for some time, you use the present perfect continuous.
She’s been crying.
I’ve been working hard all day.

3 You use the past perfect tense when you are looking back from a point in past time, and you are concerned with the effects of something which happened at an earlier time in the past.
I apologized because I had forgotten my book.
He felt much happier once he had found a new job.
They would have come if we had invited them.

You also use the past perfect when you are thinking of a time which had started earlier in the past but was still continuing.
I was about twenty. I had been studying French for a couple of years.
He hated games and had always managed to avoid children’s parties.

4 You use the future perfect tense when you are looking back from a point in the future and you are talking about something which will have happened at a time between now and that future point.
In another two years, you will have left school.
Take these tablets, and in twenty-four hours the pain will have gone.

You also use the future perfect when you are looking back from the present and guessing that an action will be finished.
I’m sure they will have arrived home by now.
It’s too late to ring Don. He will have left the house by now.

5 You can also use other modals with `have’, when you are looking back from a point in time at something which you think may have happened at an earlier time.
I might have finished work by then.
He should have arrived in Paris by the time we phone.
For more information on modals with `have’, see Units 79 to 91.

Main points

* When you are making predictions about the future or talking about future intentions, you can use either `will’ (`I will walk’) or `going to’ (`I am going to walk’).

* For promises and offers relating to the future, you use `will’ (`I will walk’).

* For future events based on arrangements, you use the future continuous (`I will be walking’).

* For events that will happen before a time in the future, you use the future perfect (`I will have walked’).

1 You cannot talk about the future with as much certainty as you can about the present or the past. You are usually talking about what you think might happen or what you intend to happen. This is why you often use modals. Although most modals can be used with future reference, you most often use the modal `will’ to talk about the future.
Nancy will arrange it.
When will I see them?

2 When you are making predictions about the future that are based on general beliefs, opinions, or attitudes, you use `will’.
The weather tomorrow will be warm and sunny.
I’m sure you will enjoy your visit to the zoo.

This use of `will’ is common in sentences with conditional clauses.
You’ll be late, if you don’t hurry.

When you are using facts or events in the present situation as evidence for a prediction, you can use `going to’.
It’s going to rain . (I can see black clouds)
I’m going to be late. (I have missed my train)

3 When you are saying what someone has decided to do, you use `going to’.
They’re going to have a party.
I’m going to stay at home today.

WARNING: You do not normally use `going to’ with the verb `go’. You usually just say `I’m going’ rather than `I’m going to go’.

`What are you going to do this weekend?’ – `I’m going to the cinema.’

When you are announcing a decision you have just made or are about to make, you use `will’.
I’m tired. I think I’ll go to bed.

4 In promises and offers relating to the future, you often use `will’ with the meaning `be willing to’.
I’ll do what I can.
I’ll help with the washing-up.

Note that you can use `will’ with this meaning in an `if’-clause.
I’ll put you through, if you’ll hang on for a minute. (= if you are willing to hang on for a minute)

WARNING: Remember that you do not normally use `will’ in `if’-clauses.
See Unit 66 for more information on `if’-clauses.

If you do that, you will be wasting your time.
The children will call out if they think he is wrong.

5 When you want to say that something will happen because arrangements have been made, you use the future continuous tense.
I’ll be seeing them when I’ve finished with you.
I’ll be waiting for you outside.
She’ll be appearing at the Royal Festival Hall.

6 When you want to talk about something that has not happened yet but will happen before a particular time in the future, you use the future perfect tense.
By the time we phone he’ll already have started.
By 2010, he will have worked for twelve years.

Main points

* For actions, situations, or regular events in the past, you use the past simple (`I walked’). For regular events in the past, you can also use `would’ or `used to’.

* For events that happened before and after a time in the past, and for temporary situations, you use the past continuous (`I was walking’).

* For present effects of past situations, you use the present perfect (`I have walked’), and for past effects of earlier events you use the past perfect (`I had walked’).

* For future in the past, you use `would’, `was/were going to’, or the past continuous (`I was walking’).

1 When you want to talk about an event that occurred at a particular time in the past, you use the past simple.
The Prime Minister flew into New York yesterday.
The new term started last week.

You also use the past simple to talk about a situation that existed over a period of time in the past.
We spent most of our time at home last winter.
They earned their money quickly that year.

2 When you want to talk about something which took place regularly in the past, you use the past simple.
They went for picnics most weekends.
We usually spent the winter at Aunt Meg’s house.

WARNING: The past simple always refers to a time in the past. A time reference is necessary to say what time in the past you are referring to. The time reference can be established in an earlier sentence or by another speaker, but it must be established.

When you want to talk about something which occurred regularly in the past, you can use `would’ or `used to’ instead of the past simple.
We would normally spend the winter in Miami.
People used to believe that the world was flat.

WARNING: You do not normally use `would’ with this meaning with verbs which are not used in the continuous tenses.
For a list of these verbs, see Unit 62.

3 When you want to talk about something which continued to happen before and after a given time in the past, you use the past continuous.
I hurt myself when I was mending my bike.
It was midnight. She was driving home.

You also use the past continuous to talk about a temporary state of affairs in the past.
Our team were losing 2-1 at the time.
We were staying with friends in Italy.
For more information on continuous tenses, see Unit 60.

4 When you are concerned with the present effects or future effects of something which happened at an indefinite time in the past, you use the present perfect.
I’m afraid I’ve forgotten my book, so I don’t know.
Have you heard from Jill recently? How is she?

You also use the present perfect when you are thinking of a time which started in the past and still continues.
Have you ever stolen anything? (= at any time up to the present)
He has been here since six o’clock. (= and he is still here)

5 When you are looking back from a point in past time, and you are concerned with the effects of something which happened at an earlier time in the past, you use the past perfect.
I apologized because I had left my wallet at home.
They would have come if we had invited them.

6 When you want to talk about the future from a point of view in past time, you can use `would’, `was / were going to’, or the past continuous.
He thought to himself how wonderful it would taste.
Her daughter was going to do the cooking.
Mike was taking his test the week after.

Main points

* When you are talking about the future in relation to official timetables or the calendar, you use the present simple (`I walk’).

* When talking about people’s plans and arrangements for the future, you use the present continuous (`I am walking’).

* In `if’-clauses, time clauses, and defining relative clauses, you can use the present simple (`I walk’) to refer to the future.

1 When you are talking about something in the future which is based on an official timetable or calendar, you use the present simple tense. You usually put a time adverbial in these sentences.
My last train leaves Euston at 11.30.
The UN General Assembly opens in New York this month.
Our next lesson is on Thursday.
We set off early tomorrow morning.

2 In statements about fixed dates, you normally use the present simple.
Tomorrow is Tuesday.
It’s my birthday next month.
Monday is the seventeenth of July.

3 When you want to talk about people’s plans or arrangements for the future, you use the present continuous tense.
I’m meeting Bill next week.
They’re getting married in June.

4 You often talk about the future using the present tense of verbs such as `hope’, `expect’, `intend’, and `want’ with a `to’-infinitive clause, especially when you want to indicate your uncertainty about what will actually happen.
We hope to see you soon.
Bill expects to be back at work tomorrow.

After the verb `hope’, you often use the present simple to refer to the future.
I hope you enjoy your holiday.

5 In subordinate clauses, the relationships between tense and time are different. In `if’-clauses and time clauses, you normally use the present simple for future reference.
If he comes, I’ll let you know.
Please start when you are ready.
We won’t start until everyone arrives.
Lock the door after you finally leave.

6 In defining relative clauses, you normally use the present simple, not `will’, to refer to the future.
Any decision that you make will need her approval.
Give my love to any friends you meet.
There is a silver cup for the runner who finishes first.

7 If you want to show that a condition has to be the case before an action can be carried out, you use the present perfect for future events.
We won’t start until everyone has arrived.
I’ll let you know when I have arranged everything.

Main points

* You use conditional clauses to talk about a possible situation and its results.

* Conditional clauses can begin with `if’.

* A conditional clause needs a main clause to make a complete sentence. The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause.

1 You use conditional clauses to talk about a situation that might possibly happen and to say what its results might be.

You use `if’ to mention events and situations that happen often, that may happen in the future, that could have happened in the past but did not happen, or that are unlikely to happen at all.
If the light comes on, the battery is OK.
I’ll call you if I need you.
If I had known, I’d have told you.
If she asked me, I’d help her.

2 When you are talking about something that is generally true or happens often, you use a present or present perfect tense in the main clause and the conditional clause.
If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
If an advertisement does not tell the truth, the advertiser is committing an offence.
If the baby is crying, it is probably hungry.
If they have lost any money, they report it to me.

WARNING: You do not use the present continuous in both clauses. You do not say `If they are losing money, they are getting angry.’

3 When you use a conditional clause with a present or present perfect tense, you often use an imperative in the main clause.
Wake me up if you’re worried.
If he has finished, ask him to leave quietly.
If you are very early, don’t expect them to be ready.

4 When you are talking about something which may possibly happen in the future, you use a present or present perfect tense in the conditional clause, and the simple future in the main clause.
If I marry Celia, we will need the money.
If you are going to America, you will need a visa.
If he has done the windows, he will want his money.

WARNING: You do not normally use `will’ in conditional clauses. You do not say `If I will see you tomorrow, I will give you the book’.

5 When you are talking about something that you think is unlikely to happen, you use the past simple or past continuous in the conditional clause and `would’ in the main clause.
If I had enough money, I would buy the car.
If he was coming , he would ring.

WARNING: You do not normally use `would’ in conditional clauses. You do not say `If I would do it, I would do it like this’.

6 `Were’ is sometimes used instead of `was’ in the conditional clause, especially after `I’.
If I were as big as you, I would kill you.
If I weren’t so busy, I would do it for you.

You often say `If I were you’ when you are giving someone advice.
If I were you, I would take the money.
I should keep out of Bernadette’s way if I were you.

7 When you are talking about something which could have happened in the past but which did not actually happen, you use the past perfect in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use `would have’ and a past participle.
If he had realized that, he would have run away.
I wouldn’t have been so depressed if I had known how common this feeling is.

WARNING: You do not use `would have’ in the conditional clause. You do not say `If I would have seen him, I would have told him’.

Main points

* You use `I wish’ and `If only’ to talk about wishes and regrets.

* You use `..as if..’ and `..as though..’ to show that information in a manner clause is not or might not be true.

1 You can express what you want to happen now by using `I wish’ or `If only’ followed by a past simple verb.
I wish he wasn’t here.
If only she had a car.

Note that in formal English, you sometimes use `were’ instead of `was’ in sentences like these.
I often wish that I were really wealthy.

When you want to express regret about past events, you use the past perfect.
I wish I hadn’t married him.

When you want to say that you wish that someone was able to do something, you use `could’.
If only they could come with us!

When you want to say that you wish that someone was willing to do something, you use `would’.
If only they would realise how stupid they’ve been.

2 When you want to indicate that the information in a manner clause might not be true, or is definitely not true, you use `as if’ or `as though’.
She reacted as if she didn’t know about the race.
She acts as though she owns the place.

After `as if’ or `as though’, you often use a past tense even when you are talking about the present, to emphasize that the information in the manner clause is not true. In formal English, you use `were’ instead of `was’.
Presidents can’t dispose of companies as if people didn’t exist.
She treats him as though he was her own son.
He looked at me as though I were mad.

3 You can also use `as if’ or `as though’ to say how someone or something feels, looks, or sounds.
She felt as if she had a fever.
He looked as if he hadn’t slept very much.
Mary sounded as though she had just run all the way.

You can also use `it looks’ and `it sounds’ with `as if’ and `as though’.
It looks to me as if he wrote down some notes.
It sounds to me as though he’s just being awkward.

4 When the subject of the manner clause and the main clause are the same, you can often use a participle in the manner clause and omit the subject and the verb `be’.
He ran off to the house as if escaping.
He shook his head as though dazzled by his own vision.

You can also use `as if’ or `as though’ with a `to’-infinitive clause.
As if to remind him, the church clock struck eleven.

5 In informal speech, people often use `like’ instead of `as if’ or `as’ to say how a person feels, looks, or sounds. Some speakers of English think that this use of `like’ is incorrect.
He felt like he’d won the pools.
You look like you’ve seen a ghost.
You talk just like my father does.

You can also use `like’ in prepositional phrases to say how someone does something.
He was sleeping like a baby.
I behaved like an idiot , and I’m sorry.

Main points

* You can use a modal in a conditional clause.

* You use `unless’ to mention an exception to what you are saying.

1 You sometimes use modals in conditional clauses. In the main clause, you can still use a present tense for events that happen often, `will’ for events that are quite likely in the future, `would’ for an event that is unlikely to happen, and `would have’ for events that were possible but did not happen.
If he can’t come, he usually phones me.
If they must have it today, they will have to come back at five o’clock.
If I could only find the time, I’d do it gladly.
If you could have seen him, you would have laughed too.

`Should’ is sometimes used in conditional clauses to express greater uncertainty.
If any visitors should come, I’ll say you aren’t here.

2 You can use other modals besides `will’, `would’ and `would have’ in the main clause with their usual meanings.
She might phone me, if she has time.
You could come, if you wanted to.
If he sees you leaving, he may cry.

Note that you can have modals in both clauses: the main clause and the conditional clause.
If he can’t come, he will phone.
See Units 79 to 91 for more information.

3 In formal English, if the first verb in a conditional clause is `had’, `should’, or `were’, you can put the verb at the beginning of the clause and omit `if’.

For example, instead of saying `If he should come, I will tell him you are sick’, it is possible to say `Should he come, I will tell him you are sick’.
Should ministers decide to hold an inquiry, we would welcome it.
Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.
Had I known, I would not have done it.

4 When you want to mention an exception to what you are saying, you use a conditional clause beginning with `unless’.
You will fail your exams.
You will fail your exams unless you work harder.

Note that you can often use `if…not’ instead of `unless’.
You will fail your exams if you do not work harder.

When you use `unless’, you use the same tenses that you use with `if’.
She spends Sundays in the garden unless the weather is awful.
We usually walk, unless we’re going shopping.
He will not let you go unless he is forced to do so.
You wouldn’t believe it, unless you saw it.

5 `If’ and `unless’ are not the only ways of beginning conditional clauses. You can also use `as long as’, `only if’, `provided’, `provided that’, `providing’, `providing that’, or `so long as’. These expressions are all used to indicate that one thing only happens or is true if another thing happens or is true.
We were all right as long as we kept our heads down.
I will come only if nothing is said to the press.
She was prepared to come, provided that she could bring her daughter.
Providing they remained at a safe distance, we would be all right.
Detergent cannot harm a fabric, so long as it has been properly dissolved.

Main points

* Many verbs are followed by an `-ing’ clause.

* Some verbs are followed by an object and an `-ing’ clause that describes what the object is doing.

1 Many verbs are followed by an `-ing’ clause. The subject of the verb is also the subject of the `-ing’ clause. The `-ing’ clause begins with an `-ing’ form. The most common of these verbs are:

* verbs of saying and thinking

admit, consider, deny, describe, imagine, mention, recall, suggest

He denied taking drugs.
I suggested meeting her for a coffee.

Note that all of these verbs except for `describe’ can also be followed by a `that’-clause. See Unit 76.
He denied that he was involved.

* verbs of liking and disliking

adore, detest, dislike, dread, enjoy, fancy, like, love, mind, resent

Will they enjoy using it?
I don’t mind telling you.
`Like’ and `love’ can also be followed by a `to’-infinitive clause. See Unit 71.

* other common verbs

avoidcommencedelayfinishinvolvekeep
misspostponepractiseresistriskstop

I’ve just finished reading that book.
Avoid giving any unnecessary information.

* common phrasal verbs

burst out, carry on, end up, give up, go round, keep on, put off, set about

She carried on reading.
They kept on walking for a while.

Note that some common phrases can be followed by an `-ing’ clause.

can’t helpcan’t standfeel like

I can’t help worrying.

2 After the verbs and phrases mentioned above, you can also use `being’ followed by a past participle.
They enjoy being praised.
I dislike being interrupted.

After some verbs of saying and thinking, you can use `having’ followed by a past participle.

admitdenymentionrecall

Michael denied having seen him.

3 `Come’ and `go’ are used with `-ing’ clauses to describe the way that a person or thing moves.
They both came running out.
It went sliding across the road out of control.
`Go’ and `come’ are also used with `-ing’ nouns to talk about sports and outdoor activities. See Unit 56.

Did you say they might go camping?

4 Some verbs can be followed by an object and an `-ing’ clause. The object of the verb is the subject of the `-ing’ clause.

catchimaginepreventwatch
findleavestop

It is hard to imagine him existing without it.
He left them making their calculations.

Note that `prevent’ and `stop’ are often used with `from’ in front of the `-ing’ clause.
I wanted to prevent him from seeing that.

Most verbs of perception can be followed by an object and an `-ing’ clause or a base form. See Unit 72.
I saw him riding a bicycle.
I saw a policeman walk over to one of them.
See also Unit 94 for `-ing’ clauses after nouns.

Main points

* Some verbs are followed by a `to’-infinitive clause. Others are followed by an object and a `to’-infinitive clause.

* Some verbs are followed by a `wh’-word and a `to’-infinitive clause. Others are followed by an object, a `wh’-word, and a `to’-infinitive clause.

* Nouns are followed by `to’-infinitive clauses that indicate the aim, purpose or necessity of something, or that give extra information.

1 Some verbs are followed by a `to’-infinitive clause. The subject of the verb is also the subject of the `to’-infinitive clause.

* verbs of saying and thinking

agreeexpectlearnplan
choosehopemeanpromise
decideintendofferrefuse

She had agreed to let us use her flat.
I decided not to go out for the evening.

* other verbs

failmanagepretendtendwant

England failed to win a place in the finals.

2 Some verbs are followed by an object and a `to’-infinitive clause. The object of the verb is the subject of the `to’-infinitive clause.

* verbs of saying and thinking

adviseencourageinvitepersuadeteach
askexpectorderremindtell

I asked her to explain.
They advised us not to wait around too long.

* other verbs

allowforcegethelpwant

I could get someone else to do it.
I didn’t want him to go.

Note that `help’ can also be followed by an object and a base form.
I helped him fix it.

WARNING: You do not use `want’ with a `that’-clause. You do not say `I want that you do something’.

3 Some verbs are followed by `for’ and an object, then a `to’-infinitive clause. The object of `for’ is the subject of the `to’-infinitive clause.

appealaskpaywish
arrangelongwait

Could you arrange for a taxi to collect us?
I waited for him to speak.

4 Some link verbs, and `pretend’ are followed by `to be’ and an `-ing’ form for continuing actions, and by `to have’ and a past participle for finished actions. See also Unit 73.
We pretended to be looking inside.
I don’t appear to have written down his name.

5 Some verbs are normally used in the passive when they are followed by a `to’-infinitive clause.

believe, consider, feel, find, know, report, say, think, understand

He is said to have died a natural death.
Is it thought to be a good thing?

6 Some verbs are followed by a `wh’-word and a `to’-infinitive clause. These include:

askexplainimaginelearnunderstand
decideforgetknowrememberwonder

I didn’t know what to call him.
She had forgotten how to ride a bicycle.

Some verbs are followed by an object, then a `wh’-word and a `to’-infinitive clause.

askremindshowteachtell

I asked him what to do.
Who will show him how to use it?

Some verbs only take `to’-infinitive clauses to express purpose.
See Unit 97.

The captain stopped to reload the gun.
He went to get some fresh milk.

7 You use a `to’-infinitive clause after a noun to indicate the aim of an action or the purpose of a physical object.
We arranged a meeting to discuss the new rules.
He had nothing to write with.

You also use a `to’-infinitive clause after a noun to say that something needs to be done.
I gave him several things to mend.
`What’s this?’ – `A list of things to remember.’

8 You use a `to’-infinitive clause after a noun group that includes an ordinal number, a superlative, or a word like `next’, `last’, or `only’.
She was the first woman to be elected to the council.
Mr Holmes was the oldest person to be chosen.
The only person to speak was James.

9 You use a `to’-infinitive clause after abstract nouns to give more specific information about them.
All it takes is a willingness to learn.
He’d lost the ability to communicate with people.

The following abstract nouns are often followed by a `to’-infinitive clause:

ability, attempt, chance, desire, failure, inability, need, opportunity, unwillingness, willingness

Note that the verbs or adjectives which are related to these nouns can also be followed by a `to’-infinitive clause. For example, you can say `I attempted to find them’, and `He was willing to learn’.
See Unit 95 for information on nouns that are related to reporting verbs and can be followed by a `to’-infinitive clause.

Main points

* Some verbs take a `to’-infinitive clause or an `-ing’ clause with little difference in meaning. Others take a `to’-infinitive or `-ing’ clause, but the meaning is different.

1 The following verbs can be followed by a `to’-infinitive clause or an `-ing’ clause, with little difference in meaning.

attempt, begin, bother, continue, fear, hate, love, prefer, start, try

It started raining.
A very cold wind had started to blow.
The captain didn’t bother answering.
I didn’t bother to answer.

Note that if these verbs are used in a continuous tense, they are followed by a `to’-infinitive clause.
The company is beginning to export to the West.
We are continuing to make good progress.

After `begin’, `continue’, and `start’, you use a `to’-infinitive clause with the verbs `understand’, `know’, and `realize’.
I began to understand her a bit better.

2 You can often use `like’ with a `to’-infinitive or an `-ing’ clause with little difference in meaning.
I like to fish.
I like fishing.

However, there is sometimes a difference. You can use `like’ followed by a `to’-infinitive clause to say that you think something is a good idea, or the right thing to do. You cannot use an `-ing’ clause with this meaning.
They like to interview you first.
I didn’t like to ask him.

3 After `remember’, `forget’, and `regret’, you use an `-ing’ clause if you are referring to an event after it has happened.
I remember discussing it once before.
I’ll never forget going out with my old aunt.
She did not regret accepting his offer.

You use a `to’-infinitive clause after `remember’ and `forget’ if you are referring to an event before it happens.
I must remember to send a gift for her child.
Don’t forget to send in your entries.

After `regret’, in formal English, you use a `to’-infinitive clause with these verbs to say that you are sorry about what you are saying or doing now:

announcelearnsee
informsaytell

I regret to say that it was all burned up.

4 If you `try to do’ something, you make an effort to do it. If you `try doing’ something, you do it as an experiment, for example to see if you like it or if it is effective.
I tried to explain.
Have you tried painting it?

5 If you `go on doing’ something, you continue to do it. If you `go on to do’ something, you do it after you have finished doing something else.
I went on writing.
He later went on to form a computer company.

6 If you `are used to doing’ something, you are accustomed to doing it. If you `used to do’ something, you did it regularly in the past, but you no longer do it now.
We are used to working together.
I used to live in this street.

7 After `need’, you use a `to’-infinitive clause if the subject of `need’ is also the subject of the `to’-infinitive clause. You use an `-ing’ form if the subject of `need’ is the object of the `-ing’ clause.
We need to ask certain questions.
It needs cutting.